Organic chemistrySyllabus

Subject code

İF-3082y

Credits

5

Student workload

150

Semester

Autumn semester

Academic year

2025-2026

Subject type

Mandatory

Form of education

Full-time

Language of instruction

Azerbaijani

In-class hours

a) 30 saat mühazirə b) 30 saat laboratoriya

Out-of-class hours

a) 36 saat MRTSİ b) 54 saat TSİ

Organic chemistry serves to study the structure, properties, production methods and chemical transformations of carbon compounds. within the subject, the chemical properties of hydrocarbons, their functional derivatives, polymers and biologically important organic compounds, as well as their application in industry, materials science, energy and food technologies are studied. as a result, students understand the structure-property relationships of organic substances and acquire the necessary theoretical knowledge to apply them in engineering activities.

• lecture
• problem-based learning
• laboratory work
• presentations

No learning outcomes have been added.

1. 1.
   In this topic, the structure, homologous order, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties, production methods and practical application areas of alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons, paraffins) are studied. sp³-hybridization of carbon atoms, formation of σ-bonds, spatial structure and stability of alkanes are explained. characteristic reactions for alkanes - the mechanisms of radical substitution (halogenation), oxidation, combustion, cracking, isomerization and dehydrogenation reactions are considered. the industrial and domestic importance of alkanes as the main components of oil and natural gas, as well as their environmental effects, are analyzed. in the second part of the topic, the concept of alicyclic compounds, their differences and similarities with alkanes is studied. the structure, nomenclature, isomerism, ring strain, conformations (especially the "chair" and "boat" forms of cyclohexane), physical and chemical properties of cycloalkanes are explained. methods of preparation of cycloalkanes, halogenation, hydrogenation, oxidation and ring opening reactions are investigated. applications of alicyclic compounds in petrochemical, organic synthesis, pharmaceutical and polymer industries are discussed. as a result of mastering the subject, students will be able to explain the structure-property relationship of alkanes and alicyclic compounds, name them according to the IUPAC nomenclature, construct their isomers, write their main reactions and evaluate their application in industry, laboratory and everyday life.Lecture

   Alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons, paraffins) and alicyclic compounds constitute important classes of organic chemistry and are of great importance both theoretically and practically. alkanes have high chemical stability because they consist of only single c–c and c–h bonds. they are mainly involved in combustion, halogenation and cracking reactions, are the main component of oil and natural gas, and are important raw materials for obtaining fuel and various organic substances. alicyclic compounds are not open-chain, but have a ring-like structure and do not have aromatic properties. their physical and chemical properties depend on the ring size and strain rate. in particular, compounds with small rings show higher reactivity, while compounds with large rings are relatively stable. these compounds are widely used in petrochemical, pharmaceutical, polymer industry and organic synthesis. thus, the study of the structure, nomenclature, isomerism, methods of preparation and chemical properties of alkanes and alicyclic compounds is important for mastering the basics of organic chemistry. this knowledge has important scientific and practical importance in the synthesis of new organic compounds, the development of industrial processes and the production of various chemical products.

   • Bu mövzunu öyrəndikdən sonra tələbə: explains the concept of alkanes and alicyclic compounds and explains their main properties. explains the homologous order of alkanes, their general formula (cₙh₂ₙ₊₂) and the general formula of alicyclic compounds (mainly cₙh₂ₙ). correctly applies the nomenclature of alkanes and cycloalkanes (according to IUPAC rules) and compiles their structural formula. defines types of isomerism and explains chain isomerism for alkanes and ring and side chain isomerism for alicyclic compounds. it characterizes the physical and chemical properties of alkanes (burning, halogenation, cracking, isomerization, etc.). compares the physical and chemical properties of cycloalkanes with alkanes and identifies their similarities and differences. it explains the methods of obtaining alkanes and alicyclic compounds (hydrogenation, wurtz reaction, kolbe electrolysis, decarboxylation, etc.). it explains the fields of application of alkanes and cycloalkanes (fuel, lubricants, petrochemical industry, organic synthesis, etc.) with examples. determines whether the given organic compounds are alkane or alicyclic compounds based on their structure. performs calculations on the topic, writes molecular and structural formulas, draws up reaction equations and analyzes the obtained results.
   • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the concept of alkanes and alicyclic compounds and explains their main properties. explains the homologous order of alkanes, their general formula (cₙh₂ₙ₊₂) and the general formula of alicyclic compounds (mainly cₙh₂ₙ). correctly applies the nomenclature of alkanes and cycloalkanes (according to IUPAC rules) and compiles their structural formula. defines types of isomerism and explains chain isomerism for alkanes and ring and side chain isomerism for alicyclic compounds. it characterizes the physical and chemical properties of alkanes (burning, halogenation, cracking, isomerization, etc.). compares the physical and chemical properties of cycloalkanes with alkanes and identifies their similarities and differences. it explains the methods of obtaining alkanes and alicyclic compounds (hydrogenation, wurtz reaction, kolbe electrolysis, decarboxylation, etc.). it explains the fields of application of alkanes and cycloalkanes (fuel, lubricants, petrochemical industry, organic synthesis, etc.) with examples. determines whether the given organic compounds are alkane or alicyclic compounds based on their structure. performs calculations on the topic, writes molecular and structural formulas, draws up reaction equations and analyzes the obtained results.
2. 2.
   Alkenes (saturated hydrocarbons, paraffins)Lecture

   In this topic, the structure, homologous order, nomenclature, isomerism and physicochemical properties of alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons, olefins) are studied. the sp²-hybridization of carbon atoms in alkene molecules, the structure of double bond (σ and π-bonds), its effect on the reactivity of the molecule, and the causes of geometric (cis-trans/e-z) isomerism are explained. naming of alkenes according to IUPAC nomenclature, construction of their structural and geometric isomers, dependence of their physical properties on carbon chain length and molecular structure are analyzed. methods of obtaining alkenes are considered in the subject - dehydrogenation of alkanes, dehydration of alcohols, dehydrohalogenation of halogenoalkanes and other laboratory and industrial methods. mechanisms and regularities of electrophilic coupling reactions (hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrogenhalogenation, hydration), oxidation, polymerization, and ozonolysis typical for alkenes are studied. the application of markovnikov and anti-markovnikov rules, as well as qualitative reactions of alkenes (reactions with bromine water and potassium permanganate solution) are explained. at the end of the topic, the importance of alkenes in the petrochemical industry, in the production of polymer materials (polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.), in organic synthesis and in other areas of the chemical industry is evaluated. as a result of mastering the subject, students: will be able to explain the structure and nomenclature of alkenes; will be able to establish structural and geometrical isomers; will interpret the basic physical and chemical properties of alkenes; will be able to show the production methods and characteristic reactions with equations; they will be able to evaluate the industrial and practical applications of alkenes.

   • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, composition and general formula (cₙh₂ₙ) of alkenes. apply the nomenclature of alkenes (according to the IUPAC rules), correctly form their names and structural formulas. defines and differentiates the types of isomerism (chain, position and geometric – cis/trans or e/z isomerism) in alkenes. explains the physical properties of alkenes and interprets their patterns of variation in the homologous series. explains the chemical properties of alkenes (addition, hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrohalogenation, hydration, polymerization, oxidation and combustion reactions) and writes reaction equations. explains markovnikov's rule and applies it to appropriate reactions. it explains the methods of obtaining alkenes (dehydrogenation of alkanes, dehydration of alcohols, dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes, etc.). it explains the industrial and household applications of alkenes (polymer production, organic synthesis, petrochemical industry, etc.) with examples. compares alkenes with alkanes and alkynes and identifies their similar and different properties. performs calculations on the subject, formulates molecular and structural formulas, predicts products of reactions and analyzes results.
   • Explains the structure, composition and general formula (cₙh₂ₙ) of alkenes. apply the nomenclature of alkenes (according to the IUPAC rules), correctly form their names and structural formulas. defines and differentiates the types of isomerism (chain, position and geometric – cis/trans or e/z isomerism) in alkenes. explains the physical properties of alkenes and interprets their patterns of variation in the homologous series. explains the chemical properties of alkenes (addition, hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrohalogenation, hydration, polymerization, oxidation and combustion reactions) and writes reaction equations. explains markovnikov's rule and applies it to appropriate reactions. it explains the methods of obtaining alkenes (dehydrogenation of alkanes, dehydration of alcohols, dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes, etc.). it explains the industrial and household applications of alkenes (polymer production, organic synthesis, petrochemical industry, etc.) with examples. compares alkenes with alkanes and alkynes and identifies their similar and different properties. performs calculations on the subject, formulates molecular and structural formulas, predicts products of reactions and analyzes results.
   • Defines and differentiates the types of isomerism (chain, position and geometric – cis/trans or e/z isomerism) in alkenes. explains the physical properties of alkenes and interprets their patterns of variation in the homologous series. explains the chemical properties of alkenes (addition, hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrohalogenation, hydration, polymerization, oxidation and combustion reactions) and writes reaction equations. explains markovnikov's rule and applies it to appropriate reactions. it explains the methods of obtaining alkenes (dehydrogenation of alkanes, dehydration of alcohols, dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes, etc.). it explains the industrial and household applications of alkenes (polymer production, organic synthesis, petrochemical industry, etc.) with examples. compares alkenes with alkanes and alkynes and identifies their similar and different properties. performs calculations on the subject, formulates molecular and structural formulas, predicts products of reactions and analyzes results.
3. 3.
   Alkadienes (hydrocarbons with two double bonds)Lecture

   In this topic, the structure, homologous order, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of the class of alkadienes (unsaturated hydrocarbons with two double bonds) are studied. the interaction of two double bonds in alkadiene molecules (cumulative, conjugated and isolated dienes), sp²-hybridization of carbon atoms, properties of the π-electron system and the effect of conjugation on the stability and reactivity of the molecule are explained. naming rules according to IUPAC nomenclature, structural and geometric (cis-trans/e-z) isomerism issues are reviewed in detail. methods of obtaining alkadienes - dehydrogenation of alkanes and alkenes, dehydrohalogenation of dihalogen derivatives and other laboratory and industrial methods are studied in the subject. reactions characteristic of alkadienes are investigated, including hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrogenhalogenation, hydration, oxidation, and polymerization reactions. the mechanism of 1,2- and 1,4-coupling reactions typical for conjugated dienes, the formation of kinetic and thermodynamic products, as well as the theoretical basis and practical importance of the diels–alder reaction are explained. the topic analyzes the role of alkadienes in industry, especially in the production of synthetic rubbers (polybutadiene, polyisoprene, styrene-butadiene rubber, etc.), elastomers and other high-molecular materials, as well as their application in organic synthesis and the petrochemical industry. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of alkadienes; they will be able to distinguish between cumulative, conjugated and isolated dienes; they will be able to establish structural and geometric isomers of alkadienes; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic chemical reactions with equations; they will be able to explain the conjugation phenomenon, 1,2- and 1,4-coupling mechanisms and the importance of the diels–alder reaction; they will be able to evaluate the applications of alkadienes in the production of synthetic rubbers and other polymeric materials, as well as in modern petrochemical and organic synthesis.

   • After studying the topic, the student: explains the structure, composition and general formula (cₙh₂ₙ₋₂) of alkadienes. classifies alkadienes (cumulative, conjugated and isolated dienes) and explains their different properties. apply the nomenclature of alkadienes (according to IUPAC rules), draw up their structural formulas and name them correctly. defines and explains the types of isomerism (chain, position and geometric – cis/trans or e/z isomerism) in alkadienes. explains electron delocalization and resonance phenomenon in conjugated dienes, evaluates its effect on the stability of substances. explains the physical and chemical properties of alkadienes (hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrohalogenation, oxidation, polymerization and combustion reactions) and writes the corresponding reaction equations. explains 1,2- and 1,4-addition reactions, compares their preparation conditions and products. it explains the methods of obtaining alkadienes (dehydrogenation of alkanes and alkenes, dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes and other methods). it explains with examples the application areas of alkadienes, especially their role in the production of synthetic rubber, elastomers and other polymeric materials. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, draws up molecular and structural formulas and analyzes the results.
   • Explains the structure, composition and general formula (cₙh₂ₙ₋₂) of alkadienes. classifies alkadienes (cumulative, conjugated and isolated dienes) and explains their different properties. apply the nomenclature of alkadienes (according to IUPAC rules), draw up their structural formulas and name them correctly. defines and explains the types of isomerism (chain, positional and geometric – cis/trans or e/z isomerism) in alkadienes. explains electron delocalization and resonance phenomenon in conjugated dienes, evaluates its effect on the stability of substances. explains the physical and chemical properties of alkadienes (hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrohalogenation, oxidation, polymerization and combustion reactions) and writes the corresponding reaction equations. explains 1,2- and 1,4-addition reactions, compares their preparation conditions and products. it explains the methods of obtaining alkadienes (dehydrogenation of alkanes and alkenes, dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes and other methods). it explains with examples the application areas of alkadienes, especially their role in the production of synthetic rubber, elastomers and other polymeric materials. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, draws up molecular and structural formulas and analyzes the results.
4. 4.
   Alkynes (acetylene hydrocarbons)Lecture

   In this topic, the structure, homologous order, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of the class of alkynes (acetylene hydrocarbons) are studied. the sp-hybridization of carbon atoms in alkyne molecules, the structure of the triple bond (one σ and two π-bonds), the linear spatial structure of the molecule and the effect of these properties on the reactivity of substances are explained. naming of alkynes according to IUPAC nomenclature, structural and positional isomerism, dependence of their physical properties on molecular mass and structure are analyzed. methods of obtaining alkynes - dehydrohalogenation of dihaloalkanes, obtaining acetylene by hydrolysis of calcium carbide, dehydrogenation of alkanes and alkenes, as well as other laboratory and industrial methods are considered in the topic. the chemical reactions characteristic of alkynes are studied, including the mechanisms of hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrogenhalogenation, hydration, oxidation, polymerization and trimerization reactions. the weak acidity property of terminal alkynes, the formation of acetylides and their application in organic synthesis are given special attention. the topic analyzes the importance of acetylene and other alkynes in the chemical industry, organic synthesis, production of polymeric materials, welding and cutting technologies, as well as in obtaining various high-value organic compounds. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, homologous order and nomenclature of alkynes; they will be able to design structural and positional isomers of alkynes; they will be able to interpret sp-hybridization and the effect of the structure of the triple bond on the properties of substances; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic chemical reactions of alkynes with equations; they will be able to explain the acidity property of terminal alkynes and the formation of acetylides; they will be able to evaluate the application areas of alkynes in organic synthesis, petrochemical industry and industrial technologies.

   • Alkynes are widely used in the chemical industry in the production of vinyl compounds, plastics, synthetic rubbers, solvents and other important chemical products. knowledge about alkynes is of great scientific and practical importance for the development of new organic synthesis methods and the development of modern chemical technologies.
   • These compounds are widely used in the chemical industry in the production of vinyl compounds, plastics, synthetic rubbers, solvents and other important chemical products. knowledge about alkynes is of great scientific and practical importance for the development of new organic synthesis methods and the development of modern chemical technologies.
   • These compounds are widely used in the chemical industry in the production of vinyl compounds, plastics, synthetic rubbers, solvents and other important chemical products. knowledge about alkynes is of great scientific and practical importance for the development of new organic synthesis methods and the development of modern chemical technologies.
   • It is widely used in the production of synthetic rubbers, solvents and other important chemical products. knowledge about alkynes is of great scientific and practical importance for the development of new organic synthesis methods and the development of modern chemical technologies.
5. 5.
   Aromatic compounds.Lecture

   In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of aromatic compounds are studied. the stability of aromatic systems is explained based on the essence of aromaticity, electronic structure of benzene ring, delocalization of π-electrons, resonance theory and hückel's rule (4n+2 π-electron rule). the structural features of benzene and its homologues, as well as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and naming rules according to IUPAC nomenclature are reviewed. methods of obtaining aromatic compounds - separation from oil and coal tar, dehydrogenation of alicyclic compounds and other laboratory and industrial methods are studied in the topic. mechanisms of electrophilic substitution reactions characteristic of aromatic compounds, including halogenation, nitration, sulfonation, and friedel–crafts alkylation and acidification reactions are analyzed. the electronic effect of the substituents present in the benzene nucleus, their directing (ortho-, meta-, para-) and activating or deactivating effect on the insertion of the second substituent are explained. reactions occurring in the side chain of aromatic compounds, oxidation and hydrogenation processes are also studied. in the topic, the wide application of aromatic compounds in the fields of petrochemical, pharmaceutical, paint, polymer, explosives, pesticides and other fine organic synthesis, as well as the toxicological and ecological properties of some aromatic compounds are evaluated. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the essence of aromaticity and hückel's rule; they will be able to interpret the structure, nomenclature and isomerism of aromatic compounds; they will be able to explain the main methods of obtaining benzene and its derivatives; they will be able to show the mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions and their directionality with equations; they will be able to analyze the electronic effect of substituents and their effect on reactivity; they will be able to appreciate the application of aromatic compounds in the chemical industry, pharmaceuticals and other fields, as well as their environmental and health importance.

   • Explains the structure, composition and main properties of aromatic compounds, interprets the concept of aromaticity. explains the structure, electronic structure and reasons of aromaticity of benzene and its homologues. explains hückel's rule (4n+2 π-electron rule) and defines the aromatic, antiaromatic and non-aromatic character of compounds. apply the nomenclature of aromatic compounds (according to IUPAC rules), draw up structural formulas and name them correctly. defines and distinguishes types of isomerism (positional isomerism – ortho, meta and para) in aromatic compounds. explains the physical and chemical properties of aromatic compounds, especially electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration, sulfonation, friedel–crafts alkylation and acylation) with reaction equations. explains the electronic effect of substituents (activating and deactivating groups, ortho/para and meta directing effect) and predicts reaction products. it explains the methods of obtaining aromatic compounds and their main synthesis methods applied in the laboratory and industry. it explains the application fields of aromatic compounds (organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals, polymer industry, dyes, solvents and other chemical fields) with examples. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, formulates structural formulas and analyzes the obtained results.
   • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, composition and main properties of aromatic compounds, interprets the concept of aromaticity. explains the structure, electronic structure and reasons of aromaticity of benzene and its homologues. explains hückel's rule (4n+2 π-electron rule) and defines the aromatic, antiaromatic and non-aromatic character of compounds. apply the nomenclature of aromatic compounds (according to IUPAC rules), draw up structural formulas and name them correctly. defines and distinguishes types of isomerism (positional isomerism – ortho, meta and para) in aromatic compounds. explains the physical and chemical properties of aromatic compounds, especially electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration, sulfonation, friedel–crafts alkylation and acylation) with reaction equations. explains the electronic effect of substituents (activating and deactivating groups, ortho/para and meta directing effect) and predicts reaction products. it explains the methods of obtaining aromatic compounds and their main synthesis methods applied in the laboratory and industry. it explains the application fields of aromatic compounds (organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals, polymer industry, dyes, solvents and other chemical fields) with examples. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, formulates structural formulas and analyzes the obtained results.
6. 6.
   Application of spectral methods to study the structure of organic compoundsLecture

   In this topic, the application of spectral analysis methods in determining the structure of organic compounds is studied. the theoretical basis and practical application of modern instrumental analysis methods in determining the structure, functional groups, connections and molecular mass of molecules are explained. the importance of spectroscopic methods in organic synthesis, scientific research, pharmaceutical, petrochemical and analytical chemistry fields is analyzed. in the subject, the physical basis, working principles and fields of application of ultraviolet-visible (uv-vis) spectroscopy, infrared (ir) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (¹h and ¹³c nmr) and mass spectrometry (ms) methods are studied. the identification of functional groups by means of IR spectra, the study of conjugated systems by uv–vis spectroscopy, the determination of the carbon-hydrogen skeleton and stereochemical properties of the molecule by NMR spectroscopy, the analysis of the molecular mass and fragmentation regularities by the MS method are explained. the subject examines the complex interpretation of various spectral data, the determination of the structure of organic compounds based on the reading and comparative analysis of spectra, as well as the advantages of the joint application of spectral methods. by working on sample spectra, students learn to interpret the results and justify the structure of unknown organic substances. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to distinguish the main spectral methods used in the study of the structure of organic compounds; they will be able to explain the working principles and fields of application of uv–vis, ir, ¹h nmr, ¹³c NMR and MS methods; they will be able to identify functional groups based on IR spectra, chemical environment of hydrogen and carbon atoms based on NMR spectra; they will be able to analyze molecular mass and major fragments based on mass spectrometry data; they will be able to determine the structure of organic compounds by interpreting various spectral data in a complex manner; they will be able to evaluate the possibilities of application of spectral analysis methods in scientific research, organic synthesis, pharmaceutical and petrochemical industries.

   • Explains the main spectral methods (ir/ir, uv-visible (uv-vis), NMR and mass spectrometry (ms)) used in determining the structure of organic compounds. explains the basic principles of infrared (ir) spectroscopy and identifies the characteristic absorption bands of functional groups. explains the basics of ultraviolet-visible (uv-vis) spectroscopy, interprets the effect of chromophore and auxochrome groups on the spectrum. explains the basic principles of ¹h and ¹³c NMR spectroscopy, applying the concepts of chemical shift (δ), spin-spin interaction, multiplicity, and integration. explains the principles of mass spectrometry (ms), identifies molecular ion and major fragmentation pathways. by analyzing spectral data, it determines the functional groups, molecular structure and possible isomers of organic compounds. comprehensively compares ir, nmr, uv-vis, and MS data and bases the structure of the compound on their basis. compares the advantages and limitations of spectral methods, selects the appropriate analytical method for a specific research purpose. scientifically interprets spectral analysis results, presents results using tables and graphs. solves practical issues related to structure determination based on spectral data, evaluates the obtained results and makes a scientifically based decision.
   • Sas explains spectral methods (ir/ir, uv-visible (uv-vis), NMR and mass spectrometry (ms)). explains the basic principles of infrared (ir) spectroscopy and identifies the characteristic absorption bands of functional groups. explains the basics of ultraviolet-visible (uv-vis) spectroscopy, interprets the effect of chromophore and auxochrome groups on the spectrum. explains the basic principles of ¹h and ¹³c NMR spectroscopy, applying the concepts of chemical shift (δ), spin-spin interaction, multiplicity, and integration. explains the principles of mass spectrometry (ms), identifies molecular ion and major fragmentation pathways. by analyzing spectral data, it determines the functional groups, molecular structure and possible isomers of organic compounds. comprehensively compares ir, nmr, uv-vis, and MS data and bases the structure of the compound on their basis. compares the advantages and limitations of spectral methods, selects the appropriate analytical method for a specific research purpose. scientifically interprets spectral analysis results, presents results using tables and graphs. solves practical issues related to structure determination based on spectral data, evaluates the obtained results and makes a scientifically based decision.
7. 7.
   Halogenated derivatives of hydrocarbonsLecture

   Bu mövzuda karbohidrogenlərin halogenli törəmələrinin quruluşu, təsnifatı, nomenklaturası, izomerliyi, fiziki və kimyəvi xassələri öyrənilir. alkil-, alkenil-, alkinil- və arilhalogenidlərin quruluş xüsusiyyətləri, karbon–halogen rabitəsinin təbiəti, halogen atomunun molekulun reaktivliyinə təsiri və IUPAC nomenklaturasına uyğun adlandırma qaydaları izah edilir. the dependence of the physical properties of halogenated derivatives on the molecular structure, type and number of halogens is analyzed. mövzuda halogenli törəmələrin alınma üsulları – karbohidrogenlərin radikal halogenləşdirilməsi, alken və alkinlərə halogen və hidrogenhalogenlərin birləşdirilməsi, spirtlərin halogenləşdirici reagentlərlə reaksiyası və digər laboratoriya və sənaye üsulları nəzərdən keçirilir. karbohidrogenlərin halogenli törəmələri üçün xarakterik olan nukleofil əvəzolunma (sn1 və sn2) və eliminasiya (e1 və e2) reaksiyalarının mexanizmləri, onların gedişinə təsir edən amillər (substratın quruluşu, həlledici, nukleofilin gücü, ayrılan qrupun xüsusiyyətləri və temperatur) ətraflı izah edilir. bundan əlavə, orqanometal birləşmələrin, o cümlədən qrinyar reagentlərinin alınması və onların üzvi sintezdə tətbiqi öyrənilir. mövzuda halogenli üzvi birləşmələrin üzvi sintezdə mühüm aralıq məhsullar kimi rolu, əczaçılıq, aqrokimya, polimer sənayesi və digər kimya sahələrində tətbiqi, eləcə də bəzi halogenli birləşmələrin toksikoloji və ekoloji xüsusiyyətləri qiymətləndirilir. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons; they will be able to interpret the main production methods and physico-chemical properties of halogenated derivatives; they will be able to explain the mechanisms of sn1, sn2, e1 and e2 reactions and the factors affecting their progress; they will be able to express the main chemical reactions involving halogen derivatives with equations; they will be able to explain the purchase of grignard reagents and their application in organic synthesis; halogenli üzvi birləşmələrin sənayedə, əczaçılıqda, polimer kimyasında və digər sahələrdə tətbiqini, həmçinin onların ekoloji və təhlükəsizlik baxımından əhəmiyyətini qiymətləndirə biləcəklər.

   • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of halogenated derivatives of hydrocarbons. distinguish between alkyl and aryl halides, compare their structural properties and reactivity. explains the physical properties of halogen derivatives (boiling point, solubility, density, etc.) and relates them to the molecular structure. it explains the methods of obtaining halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons (halogenation of alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons, addition of hydrogen halides and halogens to alkenes, synthesis from alcohols, etc.). explains the chemical properties of halogen derivatives, compares the mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution (sn1, sn2) and elimination (e1, e2) reactions. analyzes the factors affecting reaction mechanisms (substrate structure, nucleophile strength, solvent and temperature) and predicts the direction of the reaction. explains the importance of halogen derivatives in the synthesis of other organic compounds and shows their application in organic synthesis with examples. it explains the fields of application of halogenated organic compounds (organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals, polymer industry, agriculture, etc.) and safety rules. formulates reaction equations for given halogen compounds, predicts and justifies reaction products. solves theoretical and practical issues on the subject, formulates structural formulas, analyzes reactions and evaluates obtained results.
   • Explains the importance of halogen derivatives in the synthesis of other organic compounds and shows their application in organic synthesis with examples. it explains the fields of application of halogenated organic compounds (organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals, polymer industry, agriculture, etc.) and safety rules. formulates reaction equations for given halogen compounds, predicts and justifies reaction products. solves theoretical and practical issues on the subject, formulates structural formulas, analyzes reactions and evaluates obtained results.
8. 8.
   Mono- and polyhydric alcohols. phenol.Lecture

   In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of mono- and polyhydric alcohols, as well as phenols are studied. the structure of the hydroxyl (–oh) functional group of alcohols, the classification of mono, binary and ternary alcohols, the naming of mono- and polyatomic alcohols according to the IUPAC nomenclature, and the dependence of their physical properties on the molecular structure are explained. the structural characteristics of phenols, the interaction of the hydroxyl group with the aromatic nucleus and their different chemical behavior compared to alcohols are analyzed. methods of obtaining alcohols - hydration of alkenes, reduction of carbonyl compounds, hydrolysis of halogen derivatives, fermentation and other laboratory and industrial methods are studied in the topic. reactions characteristic of alcohols, including interaction with active metals, substitution, dehydration, oxidation, esterification, and esterification reactions are investigated. the chemical properties of polyatomic alcohols, especially ethylene glycol and glycerol, their qualitative reaction with copper(ii) hydroxide and their application in industry are explained. methods of obtaining phenols, acidity properties, reactivity in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, reactions with sodium hydroxide and bromine water, quality reaction with iron(iii) chloride and oxidation processes are studied in detail. a comparison of the chemical properties of alcohols and phenols, the influence of the hydroxyl group on the reactivity of the molecule, and the relationships between functional groups are analyzed. the topic evaluates the application of alcohols and phenols in the pharmaceutical, medical, food, cosmetic, polymer, paint, and petrochemical industries, as well as their toxicological properties, safe use, and environmental impact. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of mono- and polyhydric alcohols, as well as phenols; they will be able to compare the physical and chemical properties of alcohol and phenols; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic reactions of alcohols and phenols with equations; they will be able to explain qualitative reactions for polyhydric alcohols and phenols; they will be able to interpret the influence of the hydroxyl group on the reactivity of the molecule and the relationship between the functional groups; they will be able to evaluate the application of alcohols and phenols in the chemical industry, pharmacy, medicine and other fields, as well as their safe use and environmental importance.

   • It explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of mono- and polyhydric alcohols, as well as phenols. analyzes the molecular structure of alcohols and phenols, compares their similar and different properties. explains the physical properties of mono- and polyhydric alcohols, as well as phenols (boiling point, solubility, hydrogen bonding, etc.) and relates them to the structure. it explains the methods of obtaining alcohols and phenols (hydration of alkenes, reduction of carbonyl compounds, hydrolysis of halogenated derivatives, cumol method, etc.). explains the chemical properties of alcohols (reactions with active metals, hydrogen halides, dehydration, oxidation, esterification and esterification reactions) and draws up reaction equations. explains the chemical properties of phenols (acidic properties, electrophilic aromatic substitution, bromination, nitrosation, oxidation, etc.) and compares them with alcohols. compares the chemical activity of mono-, di- and triatomic alcohols, evaluates the effect of the number of hydroxyl groups on the properties of substances. it explains the industrial and laboratory applications of alcohols and phenols (solvents, antiseptics, polymers, pharmaceuticals, paint and plastic production, etc.) with examples. explains the safety rules and toxicological properties of alcohol and phenols, applies the principles of working with them in the laboratory. it solves theoretical and practical issues on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, draws up structural formulas and analyzes the obtained results on scientific grounds.
   • Analyzes the molecular structure of alcohols and phenols, compares their similar and different properties. explains the physical properties of mono- and polyhydric alcohols, as well as phenols (boiling point, solubility, hydrogen bonding, etc.) and relates them to the structure. it explains the methods of obtaining alcohols and phenols (hydration of alkenes, reduction of carbonyl compounds, hydrolysis of halogenated derivatives, cumol method, etc.). explains the chemical properties of alcohols (reactions with active metals, hydrogen halides, dehydration, oxidation, esterification and esterification reactions) and draws up reaction equations. explains the chemical properties of phenols (acidic properties, electrophilic aromatic substitution, bromination, nitrosation, oxidation, etc.) and compares them with alcohols. compares the chemical activity of mono-, di- and triatomic alcohols, evaluates the effect of the number of hydroxyl groups on the properties of substances. it explains the industrial and laboratory applications of alcohols and phenols (solvents, antiseptics, polymers, pharmaceuticals, paint and plastic production, etc.) with examples. explains the safety rules and toxicological properties of alcohol and phenols, applies the principles of working with them in the laboratory. it solves theoretical and practical issues on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, draws up structural formulas and analyzes the obtained results on scientific grounds.
9. 9.
   Simple ethers. epoxy compoundsLecture

   In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of simple ethers and epoxy compounds are studied. structural features of simple ethers, features of c–o–c functional group, classification of symmetric and unsymmetrical ethers, naming according to IUPAC nomenclature and dependence of their physical properties on molecular structure are explained. the structure of epoxy compounds (oxiranes) as three-membered cyclic ethers, ring strain and its effect on their high reactivity are analyzed. methods of obtaining simple ethers - intermolecular dehydration of alcohols, williamson ether synthesis and other laboratory and industrial methods are considered in the topic. reactions characteristic of simple ethers, including decomposition, oxidation and formation of peroxides under the influence of acids, are studied. the wide application of ethers as an organic solvent, the formation of peroxides during storage and the related safety rules are explained. methods of obtaining epoxy compounds - epoxidation of alkenes with peroxyacids, cyclization of halohydrins in an alkaline environment and other methods are being investigated. ring opening reactions of epoxides with nucleophilic reagents, mechanism of reactions in acid and alkaline environment, regioselectivity and stereochemical properties are analyzed. the role of epoxy compounds as important intermediates in organic synthesis, their application in the synthesis of biologically active substances, medicinal preparations, polymers and other high-value organic compounds is studied. the topic evaluates the application of simple ethers and epoxy compounds in the chemical industry, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, polymer industry and laboratory practice, as well as their safe use, toxicological properties and environmental impact. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of simple ethers and epoxy compounds; they will be able to interpret the main production methods and physico-chemical properties of simple ethers and epoxides; they will be able to express the characteristic chemical reactions and their mechanisms for simple ethers and epoxy compounds with equations; they will be able to explain the regioselective and stereochemical properties of ring opening reactions of epoxides; they will be able to appreciate the importance of simple ethers and epoxides as intermediates in organic synthesis; they will be able to justify the application of these compounds in industry, pharmacy, polymer chemistry and laboratory practice, as well as their safety and environmental aspects.

   • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of simple ethers and epoxy compounds. analyzes the molecular structure of simple ethers and epoxy compounds, compares their similar and different properties. explains the physical properties (boiling point, solubility, polarity, etc.) of ethers and epoxides and relates them to molecular structure. it explains the methods of obtaining simple ethers and epoxy compounds (williamson synthesis, epoxidation of alkenes, cyclization of halohydrins, etc.). explains the chemical properties of simple ethers (oxidation, decomposition with hydrogen halides, stability of ethers, etc.) and compiles the corresponding reaction equations. explains the chemical properties of epoxy compounds, interprets the mechanism of nucleophilic ring opening reactions that occur as a result of ring strain. compares the ring-opening reactions of epoxides in acidic and alkaline media and predicts the reaction products. it explains with examples the applications of simple ethers and epoxy compounds in organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals and industry. applies safety rules when working with simple ethers and epoxy compounds, evaluates their flammability and toxicological properties. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, draws up structural formulas and reaction equations, justifies the products of the reactions and analyzes the results.
10. 10.
    Aldehyde and ketonesLecture

    In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones are studied. the electronic structure of the carbonyl (c=o) functional group, the sp²-hybridization of the carbon atom, the polarity of the carbonyl group and the effect of these properties on the reactivity of the compounds are explained. naming of aldehydes and ketones according to IUPAC nomenclature, structural and functional isomerism, dependence of physical properties on molecular structure are analyzed. methods of obtaining aldehydes and ketones - oxidation and dehydrogenation of mono- and di-alcohols, hydration of alkynes, reduction of acyl derivatives and other laboratory and industrial methods are considered in the topic. mechanisms of nucleophilic coupling reactions, reduction, oxidation, formation of cyanohydrins, acetals and ketals, condensation reactions with amine derivatives, as well as aldol condensation and cannizzaro reaction are studied. a comparison of the reactivity of aldehydes and ketones, the relationship of the carbonyl group with electronic and steric factors is analyzed. the topic describes the qualitative reactions of aldehydes - tollens ("silver mirror"), fehling and benedict reactions, as well as the distinguishing features of ketones. the role of carbonyl compounds as important intermediates in organic synthesis, their application in pharmaceutical, perfumery, food, paint and polymer industries, as well as their toxicological properties and safe use are evaluated. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones; they will be able to interpret the effect of the structure of the carbonyl group on the physical and chemical properties of substances; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic reactions of aldehydes and ketones with equations; they will be able to explain the mechanism of nucleophilic coupling reactions and the reactivity of carbonyl compounds; they will be able to distinguish aldehydes from ketones by explaining the nature and application of tollens, fehling and benedict reactions; they will be able to evaluate the application areas of aldehydes and ketones in organic synthesis, pharmaceutical, food and chemical industries, as well as their safety and environmental aspects.

    • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of aldehydes and ketones and correctly draws their structural formulas. analyzes the electronic structure of the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones, explains its influence on the physical and chemical properties of substances. it characterizes the physical properties of aldehydes and ketones (boiling point, solubility, polarity, etc.) and relates them to the molecular structure. it explains the methods of obtaining aldehydes and ketones (oxidation of alcohols, hydration of alkynes, reduction of acyl chlorides and other methods). explains the basic chemical properties of carbonyl compounds and interprets the mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions. compares the oxidation and reduction reactions of aldehydes and ketones, and justifies the differences in their reactivity. it explains the characteristic reactions of carbonyl compounds (hydrogenation, formation of cyanohydrins, production of oxime and hydrazones, formation of acetals and ketals, aldol condensation, etc.) with reaction equations. apply qualitative reactions of aldehydes and ketones (tollens, fehling, schiff reagents, etc.) and distinguish these compounds based on them. it explains the applications of aldehydes and ketones in industry, biological systems and organic synthesis with examples. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, compiles structural formulas and reaction equations, predicts products of reactions and analyzes obtained results on scientific grounds.
11. 11.
    Thioalcohols, thioethers, sulfoacidsLecture

    In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of thioalcohols (thiols), thioethers (sulfides) and sulfoacids are studied. the functional groups of sulfur-containing organic compounds, their similarities and differences with oxygen analogues, the properties of the carbon-sulfur bond and the effect of these properties on the reactivity of substances are explained. naming of thiols, sulfides and sulfoacids according to IUPAC nomenclature, dependence of their physical properties on molecular structure and functional groups is analyzed. methods of obtaining thioalcohols, thioethers and sulfoacids - nucleophilic substitution reactions of halogenated derivatives, transformations of alcohol and phenol derivatives, sulfonation of aromatic compounds and other laboratory and industrial methods are studied in the subject. characteristic acidity properties of thiols, formation of mercaptides, generation of disulfides as a result of oxidation, formation of sulfoxides and sulfones by oxidation of thioethers, acid properties of sulfoacids, formation of salts and their derivatives are explained. the role of these compounds as important intermediates in organic synthesis and their application in various transformations are reviewed. the subject evaluates the role of sulfur-containing organic compounds in biological systems (amino acids, proteins and coenzymes), pharmaceutical, petrochemical, paint, surfactant, polymer and fine organic synthesis industries, as well as their toxicological properties, safe use and environmental impact. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of thioalcohols, thioethers and sulfoacids; they will be able to compare the physical and chemical properties of these compounds with their oxygen analogues; they will be able to express the main acquisition methods and their characteristic reactions with equations; they will be able to interpret the reactions of oxidation of thiols, formation of disulfides, oxidation of thioethers and sulfoacids; they will be able to justify the biological and industrial importance of sulfur-containing organic compounds; they will be able to evaluate the application of these substances in pharmaceutical, petrochemical and other industries, as well as their safety and environmental aspects.

    • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of thioalcohols (thiols), thioethers (sulfides) and sulfoacids. analyzes the molecular structure of sulfur-containing organic compounds, compares their similarities and differences with their oxygen analogues (alcohols and ethers). explains the physical properties (boiling point, solubility, odor, polarity, etc.) of thioalcohols, thioethers, and sulfoacids and relates them to molecular structure. it explains the methods of obtaining these compounds (synthesis from halogen derivatives, nucleophilic substitution reactions, oxidation and other methods). explains the chemical properties of thioalcohols (acidity properties, formation of thiolates, production of disulfides as a result of oxidation, etc.) and compiles the corresponding reaction equations. explains the chemical properties of thioethers (formation of sulfoxides and sulfones as a result of oxidation, nucleophilic reactions, etc.). explains the chemical properties of sulfoacids (acidity, formation of salts and derivatives, reactions in organic synthesis) and interprets their application areas. explains the biological, industrial and laboratory importance of sulfur-containing organic compounds (medicines, dyes, surfactants, catalysis and organic synthesis) with examples. he applies safety rules when working with thioalcohols, thioethers and sulfoacids, evaluates their toxicological and ecological properties. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, formulates structural formulas and reaction equations, predicts the products of reactions and analyzes the results on a scientific basis.
12. 12.
    Nitrocompounds Lecture

    In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of nitro compounds are studied. the electronic structure of the nitro (–no₂) functional group, its effect on the reactivity and physical properties of the molecule, structural features of aliphatic and aromatic nitro compounds are explained. naming of nitro compounds according to IUPAC nomenclature, structural and positional isomerism, dependence of physical properties on molecular structure and number of nitro groups are analyzed. methods of obtaining nitro compounds - nitration of alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons, nucleophilic substitution reactions of halogen derivatives and other laboratory and industrial methods are studied in the subject. characteristic chemical reactions for nitro compounds, especially the formation of nitroso compounds, hydroxylamines and amines as a result of stepwise reduction of the nitro group, as well as the properties of electrophilic and nucleophilic substitution reactions in aromatic nitro compounds are explained. the strong electron acceptor effect of the nitro group, the effect on the reactivity of the aromatic ring and the directing properties of the substituents are analyzed. the topic examines the role of nitro compounds as important intermediates in organic synthesis, their importance in the production of aniline and other aromatic amines, and their application in the dye, pharmaceutical, agrochemical, explosives, and polymer industries. at the same time, the toxicological properties, safe use rules and environmental impact of some nitro compounds are evaluated. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of nitro compounds; they will be able to interpret the electron effect of the nitro group and its effect on the reactivity of the molecule; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic chemical reactions of nitro compounds with equations; they will be able to explain the reduction processes of the nitro group and its role in obtaining amines; they will be able to analyze the directing effect of substituents and reactivity regularities in aromatic nitro compounds; they will be able to evaluate the application of nitro compounds in pharmaceutical, paint, agrochemical, polymer and other chemical industries, as well as their safety and environmental aspects.

    • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of nitro compounds and correctly draws their structural formulas. analyzes the electronic structure of the nitro group (-no₂), explains its effect on the physical and chemical properties of the molecule. distinguish between aliphatic and aromatic nitro compounds, compare their structure and reactivity. explains the physical properties of nitro compounds (boiling point, solubility, polarity, etc.) and relates them to molecular structure. explains the methods of obtaining nitro compounds (radical nitration of alkanes, nitration of aromatic compounds and other synthesis methods) and compiles the corresponding reaction equations. explains the chemical properties of nitro compounds (reduction, nucleophilic substitution, reactions of the active methylene group, etc.) and interprets the reaction mechanisms. explains the production of amines as a result of the reduction of nitro compounds and justifies the importance of these transformations in organic synthesis. it explains industrial and laboratory applications of nitro compounds (dyes, pharmaceuticals, solvents, organic synthesis and other fields of chemistry) with examples. applies safety rules when working with nitro compounds, evaluates their toxicological and ecological properties. solves theoretical and practical issues on the subject, predicts the products of reactions, compiles structural formulas and reaction equations, analyzes the obtained results on scientific grounds.
13. 13.
    Amens Lecture

    In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of amines are studied. the structure of amines as organic derivatives of ammonia, classification of single, double and triple amines, properties of aliphatic, aromatic and heterocyclic amines are explained. the sp³-hybridization of the nitrogen atom, the presence of a free electron pair, its effect on the basicity properties and chemical reactivity of amines, as well as the naming rules according to the IUPAC nomenclature are analyzed. methods of obtaining amines - reduction of nitro compounds, nucleophilic substitution reactions of halogenated derivatives with ammonia and amines, reduction of nitriles, hofmann transformation of amides and other laboratory and industrial methods are considered in the topic. chemical reactions characteristic of amines are studied, including salt formation, alkylation, acidification, condensation with aldehydes and ketones, diazotization, and azo coupling reactions. electronic structure of aromatic amines, especially aniline, basicity properties and behavior in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions are explained. the topic examines the biological importance of amines, their role in the composition of amino acids, alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing organic compounds, as well as their application in the pharmaceutical, paint, polymer, agricultural chemistry and petrochemical industries. the toxicological properties, safe use and environmental impact of amines are also evaluated. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of amines; they will be able to interpret the basic properties of amines and the effect of the free electron pair on chemical behavior; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic reactions of amines with equations; they will be able to explain the essence of diazotization, azo addition, alkylation and acidification reactions; they will be able to compare the chemical properties of aliphatic and aromatic amines; they will be able to appreciate the application of amines in pharmaceutical, paint, polymer and other chemical industries, as well as their biological, ecological and safety importance.

    • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of amines and distinguishes between single (i°), double (ii°) and triple (iii°) amines. analyzes the structural properties of aliphatic, aromatic and heterocyclic amines and compares their physical and chemical properties. relates physical properties of amines (state of aggregation, boiling point, solubility, hydrogen bonding, etc.) to molecular structure. explains the basicity properties of amines, evaluates the effect of electron donor and electron acceptor groups on basicity. it explains the methods of obtaining amines (reduction of nitro compounds, alkylation of ammonia, reduction of nitriles, reduction of amides, gabriel synthesis, etc.). explains the main chemical properties of amines (salt formation with acids, alkylation, acidification, reactions with carbonyl compounds, etc.) and compiles the corresponding reaction equations. explains diazotization and azo-addition reactions of aromatic amines, justifies their application in organic synthesis and dye industry. explains the biological and industrial importance of amines (medicines, polymers, dyes, pesticides, surfactants, etc.) with examples. when working with amines, he applies laboratory safety rules, evaluates their toxicological and ecological properties. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, analyzes structural formulas and reaction mechanisms, predicts products of reactions and interprets results on scientific grounds.
14. 14.
    Monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivativesLecture

    In this topic, the structure, classification, nomenclature, isomerism, physical and chemical properties of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives are studied. the electronic structure of the carboxyl (–cooh) functional group, the interaction of carbonyl and hydroxyl groups, the reasons for the acidity property, and the effect of the electronic effect of substituents on acidity are explained. the structural properties, nomenclature and physical properties of aliphatic and aromatic monobasic carboxylic acids, as well as their derivatives - acyl halides, acid anhydrides, complex ethers and amides are analyzed. methods of obtaining monobasic carboxylic acids - oxidation of monoalcohols and aldehydes, hydrolysis of nitriles, reaction of grignard reagents with carbon dioxide and other laboratory and industrial methods are studied in the subject. chemical reactions characteristic of carboxylic acids and their derivatives are investigated, including salt formation, esterification, amidation, acyl substitution reactions, decarboxylation and reduction processes. the mechanism of nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions, interconversions of carboxylic acid derivatives and the order of reactivity are explained in detail. the subject analyzes the application of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives in the pharmaceutical, food, polymer, paint, cosmetic, and petrochemical industries, as well as their role in the composition of natural products, lipids, and other biologically important compounds. the safe use, storage and environmental impact of these compounds are also evaluated. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives; they will be able to interpret the electronic structure of the carboxyl group and the factors affecting the acidity property; they will be able to express the main production methods and characteristic reactions of carbonic acids and their derivatives with equations; they will be able to explain the mechanism of nucleophilic acyl substitution and interconversions of carboxylic acid derivatives; they will be able to compare the reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives and justify the direction of reactions; they will be able to evaluate the application of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives in organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals, food and polymer industry, as well as their biological and ecological importance.

    • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature (according to IUPAC rules) of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives (acyl halides, acid anhydrides, ethers, amides and nitriles). analyzes the electronic structure of the carboxyl group (-cooh), explains its effect on acidity properties and reactivity. relates the physical properties (boiling point, solubility, hydrogen bonding, etc.) of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives to the molecular structure. explains the methods of obtaining monobasic carboxylic acids (oxidation of monoalcohol and aldehydes, hydrolysis of nitriles, grignard reaction and other methods). explains the chemical properties of carboxylic acids (acidity, salt formation, esterification, amidation, decarboxylation, reduction, etc.) and formulates reaction equations. it explains the interconversions of carbonic acid derivatives (acyl halide ↔ anhydride ↔ ether ↔ amide, etc.) and interprets the reaction mechanisms. explain nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions and compare the reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives. it explains with examples the fields of application of monobasic carboxylic acids and their derivatives in industry, pharmaceuticals and biochemistry. applies safety rules when working with carbonic acids and their derivatives, evaluates their toxicological and ecological properties. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, formulates structural formulas and reaction equations, predicts the products of reactions and analyzes the results on a scientific basis.
15. 15.
    Carbohydrates Lecture

    In this subject, the structure, classification, nomenclature, stereochemistry, physical and chemical properties of carbohydrates are studied. biological importance of carbohydrates as natural organic compounds, their classification into mono-, di- and polysaccharides, molecular structure, functional groups and stereochemical properties are explained. open-chain and cyclic forms of monosaccharides, anomeric, mutarotation, d- and l-configurations, as well as the mechanism of formation of glycosidic bonds are analyzed. basic principles of IUPAC and traditional nomenclature of carbohydrates are reviewed. in the subject, methods of obtaining monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides, structural features and interactions are studied. chemical reactions characteristic of carbohydrates are examined, including oxidation, reduction, esterification, esterification, glycoside formation, hydrolysis, and enzymatic transformations. the properties of reducing and non-reducing sugars, their differentiation through fehling, benedict and tollens reactions are explained. the structure, properties and biological functions of polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose and glycogen are comparatively analyzed. the topic examines the role of carbohydrates as an energy source, reserve and structural substance in living organisms, their importance in metabolism, as well as their application in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, medicine and other industries. general information about modern analytical methods used in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of carbohydrates is also given. as a result of mastering the subject, students: they will be able to explain the structure, classification and nomenclature of carbohydrates; they will be able to compare the structure and properties of mono-, di- and polysaccharides; they will be able to interpret the essence of anomeric, mutarotation, stereoisomerism and glycosidic bonds; they will be able to express the main chemical reactions and quality reactions of carbohydrates with equations; they will be able to explain the biological functions of carbohydrates and their role in metabolism; they will be able to appreciate the applications of carbohydrates in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology and medicine, as well as their importance in terms of health and industry.

    • After studying this topic, the student will: explains the structure, classification and nomenclature of carbohydrates, dividing them into monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. analyzes the stereochemical structure of monosaccharides, explains the concepts of d/l-configuration, optical isomerism, anomericness and mutarotation. compares open-chain and cyclic forms of carbohydrates, interprets the formation of pyranose and furanose structures. explains the physical and chemical properties of carbohydrates (oxidation, reduction, formation of glycosides, esterification, esterification and hydrolysis reactions) and draws up reaction equations. distinguishes reducing and non-reducing sugars, applies their qualitative reactions (fehling, tollens, etc.). explains the structure of disaccharides and polysaccharides, defines the types of glycosidic bonds and interprets their hydrolysis. compares the structure, properties and biological functions of starch, cellulose and glycogen. explains the role of carbohydrates in living organisms and their industrial applications (food industry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology and fermentation processes) with examples. when working with carbohydrates, he applies laboratory methods and analytical methods, interprets the results obtained. solves theoretical and practical problems on the subject, formulates structural formulas and reaction equations, predicts the products of reactions and analyzes the results on a scientific basis.
16. 16.
    Alkanes. synthesis of methaneLaboratory

    In this topic, the structure, physicochemical properties, production methods and principles of synthesis of methane (ch₄) are studied. the molecular structure of methane as the first representative of the alkanes series, sp³-hybridization of the carbon atom, tetrahedral structure and properties of c–h bonds are explained. the importance of methane as the main component of natural gas, its natural sources and role in industry are analyzed. in the subject, obtaining (synthesis) of methane by laboratory and industrial methods is studied. methods such as hydrolysis of aluminum carbide, decarboxylation of sodium acetate with alkali, reduction of methyl halides, hydrogenation of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (methanation reaction) and their chemical bases are explained. reaction conditions, used catalysts and process mechanisms are analyzed. chemical properties of methane - combustion reaction, halogenation, oxidation, pyrolysis and transformations at high temperature are investigated in the topic. the reasons for the low chemical activity of methane, the continuity of the c–h bond, and the stages of the chlorination reaction with the free radical mechanism are explained. the subject studies the industrial importance of methane, its use as an energy carrier, its role as a raw material in the production of hydrogen, synthesis gas, methanol and other valuable chemical products. issues related to the environmental impact of methane as a greenhouse gas, safe storage and use are also considered. as a result of mastering the subject, students will be able to: explain the molecular structure of methane and its position among alkanes; they will be able to express the laboratory and industrial synthesis methods of methane with chemical equations; they will be able to interpret the nature of the methanation process and the role of catalysts; they will be able to explain the main physical and chemical properties and characteristic reactions of methane; they will be able to evaluate industrial applications of methane as a fuel and chemical raw material; they will be able to take into account the environmental effects and safety rules during the use of methane.

17. 17.
    Alkenes. synthesis of ethyleneLaboratory

    In this topic, the structure of ethylene (c₂h₄), production methods, physical-chemical properties and industrial importance are studied. the molecular structure of ethylene as the first representative of the class of alkenes, sp²-hybridization of carbon atoms, formation of double bond (c=c), characteristics of σ and π-bonds, spatial structure of the molecule and concept of unsaturation are explained. the position, nomenclature and isomerism properties of ethylene in the homologous series are analyzed. the subject studies the synthesis of ethylene by laboratory and industrial methods. dehydration of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) in the presence of acids, dehydrogenation of ethane, pyrolysis and cracking of oil fractions, as well as other modern industrial methods are investigated. the reaction conditions, the effect of temperature, catalysts and process parameters on the yield of ethylene are explained. chemical properties of ethylene and reactions of double bonds are studied in the subject. mechanisms of ethylene hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrogenhalogenation, hydration, oxidation, polymerization and other coupling reactions are explained. the stages of electrophilic coupling reactions, the effect of electron density of π-bond on reactivity and the application of markovnikov's rule are analyzed. the topic examines the importance of ethylene in industry, its role as the main raw material in the production of polyethylene, ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol, ethylbenzene, vinyl chloride and other valuable products. the application, production technologies, storage and safe use of ethylene in the petrochemical industry, as well as its impact on the environment are reviewed. as a result of mastering the topic, students will be able to: explain the structure, nomenclature and position of ethylene among alkenes; they will be able to interpret the structure of the c=c double bond and its effect on chemical activity; they will be able to express the laboratory and industrial synthesis methods of ethylene with chemical equations; they will be able to explain the main chemical reactions of ethylene and their mechanisms; they will be able to show the nature of electrophilic coupling reactions and the application of markovnikov's rule; they will be able to appreciate the importance of ethylene in the petrochemical industry, polymer production and other technological processes.

18. 18.
    Alkynes. synthesis of acetyleneLaboratory

    In this topic, the structure of acetylene (c₂h₂), production methods, physical-chemical properties and industrial importance are studied. the molecular structure of acetylene as the main representative of the class of alkynes, the sp-hybridization of carbon atoms, the formation of a triple bond (c≡c), the properties of σ and two π-bonds, the linear structure of the molecule and the concept of unsaturation are explained. acetylene's nomenclature, electronic structure and comparative properties with other hydrocarbons are analyzed. the subject studies the synthesis of acetylene by laboratory and industrial methods. methods of obtaining acetylene from the interaction of calcium carbide with water, high-temperature pyrolysis of methane, and conversion of ethylene and other hydrocarbons are being investigated. conditions for conducting reactions, temperature, effect of catalysts and features of technological processes are explained. chemical properties of acetylene and reactions specific to the triple bond are studied in the subject. hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrogenhalogenation, hydration (kucherov reaction), oxidation, polymerization and reactions of acetylene with acetylenides of metals are investigated. the acidity properties of the ≡c–h bond in terminal alkynes, the formation of acetylenides and their application in organic synthesis are explained. the topic analyzes the importance of acetylene in industry and technology, its use as fuel gas in welding and cutting, as a raw material in the purchase of vinyl chloride, polyvinyl chloride (pvc), synthetic rubbers, organic synthesis products and other valuable substances. acetylene storage, handling, explosion hazard, and safe handling are reviewed. as a result of mastering the topic, students will be able to: explain the molecular structure of acetylene, sp-hybridization and properties of triple bonds; they will be able to express the laboratory and industrial synthesis methods of acetylene with chemical equations; they will be able to interpret the main chemical reactions of acetylene and their mechanisms; they will be able to explain the acidity properties of terminal alkynes and the formation of acetylenides; they will be able to evaluate the fields of application of acetylene in organic synthesis and industry; they will be able to consider safety rules and environmental aspects when working with acetylene.

19. 19.
    Aromatic compounds. synthesis of bromobenzeneLaboratory

    In this topic, the structure of bromobenzene (c₆h₅br), production methods, physical-chemical properties and application in organic synthesis are studied. the structural features of bromobenzene as an aromatic halogenated derivative, the location of the bromine atom in the benzene nucleus, the stability of the aromatic system, and the electronic properties of the c–br bond are explained. the nomenclature, isomerism and comparative properties of aromatic halogen compounds with other halogen derivatives are analyzed. methods of synthesis of bromobenzene are studied in the topic. bromination of benzene as a basic method – electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction, role of brominating reagents (br₂ and catalysts), reaction mechanism and stages are explained. the processes of generation of electrophilic particle, formation of σ-complex, and restoration of aromaticity during the introduction of bromine atom into the aromatic ring are analyzed. the effect of reaction conditions (temperature, catalyst, ratio of reagents) on product yield and purity is investigated. the physical and chemical properties of bromobenzene are studied in the topic. its physical properties, solubility, density, boiling point, and reactions characteristic of aromatic halogen compounds—nucleophilic substitution, formation of organometallic compounds (eg, grignard reagents), reduction, and other transformations—are explained. the behavior of bromobenzene in electrophilic substitution reactions in the aromatic ring and the directing effect of the bromine atom are analyzed. the topic examines the role of bromobenzene as an intermediate product in organic synthesis. its use in the preparation of phenylmagnesium bromide (grignard reagent), pharmaceuticals, agrochemical preparations, dyes and other aromatic compounds is explained. when working with bromobenzene and its derivatives, safety rules, toxicological properties and environmental impact are considered. as a result of mastering the subject, students will be able to: explain the structure, nomenclature of bromobenzene and its place among aromatic halogen derivatives; they will be able to interpret the mechanism of the bromination reaction of benzene and the conditions of its conduct; they will be able to express the methods of obtaining bromobenzene with chemical equations; they will be able to analyze the physical and chemical properties of aromatic halogen compounds; they will be able to explain the role of bromobenzene in nucleophilic substitution and organometallic reactions; they will be able to evaluate the application of bromobenzene in organic synthesis and industrial fields, as well as the principles of safe use.

20. 20.
    Alcohols. synthesis of isopropyl alcohol.Laboratory

    In this topic, the structure of isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol, c₃h₇oh), production methods, physico-chemical properties and fields of application are studied. structural features of isopropyl alcohol as a diatomic saturated secondary alcohol, the effect of the hydroxyl group on the chemical activity of the molecule, the nomenclature and isomerism of alcohols are explained. the properties of c–o and o–h bonds in the molecule, the formation of hydrogen bonds and their effect on physical properties are analyzed. the subject studies the synthesis of isopropyl alcohol by laboratory and industrial methods. the main production methods - hydration of propene (propylene) with the presence of acid catalysts, production by reduction from acetone and other technological methods are investigated. the mechanism of electrophilic coupling during the hydration of propene, the application of markovnikov's rule, the role of catalysts (acids) and the effect of process conditions on product yield are explained. physical and chemical properties of isopropyl alcohol are studied in the topic. its water solubility, volatility, boiling point, density and other physical parameters are investigated. characteristic reactions for isopropyl alcohol - oxidation (formation of acetone), esterification, dehydration, interaction with sodium and other functional group reactions are explained. oxidation properties of secondary alcohols and their difference with primary alcohols are analyzed. the subject examines the industrial and practical importance of isopropyl alcohol. its use as a solvent, disinfectant, component in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industry, and as an intermediate in organic synthesis is explained. isopropyl alcohol's storage, flammability properties, safe handling practices, and environmental aspects are reviewed. as a result of mastering the subject, students will be able to: explain the structure, nomenclature and place of isopropyl alcohol in the class of alcohols; they will be able to express the laboratory and industrial synthesis methods of isopropyl alcohol with chemical equations; they will be able to explain the mechanism of propene hydration reaction and markovnikov's rule; they will be able to interpret the main physical and chemical properties of isopropyl alcohol; they will be able to analyze the oxidation and other characteristic reactions of secondary alcohols; they will be able to evaluate the application areas of isopropyl alcohol in industry, pharmacy and organic synthesis.

21. 21.
    Alcohols. synthesis of isopropyl alcohol.Laboratory

    In this topic, the structure of isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol, c₃h₇oh), production methods, physico-chemical properties and fields of application are studied. structural features of isopropyl alcohol as a diatomic saturated secondary alcohol, the effect of the hydroxyl group on the chemical activity of the molecule, the nomenclature and isomerism of alcohols are explained. the properties of c–o and o–h bonds in the molecule, the formation of hydrogen bonds and their effect on physical properties are analyzed. the subject studies the synthesis of isopropyl alcohol by laboratory and industrial methods. the main production methods - hydration of propene (propylene) with the presence of acid catalysts, production by reduction from acetone and other technological methods are investigated. the mechanism of electrophilic coupling during the hydration of propene, the application of markovnikov's rule, the role of catalysts (acids) and the effect of process conditions on product yield are explained. physical and chemical properties of isopropyl alcohol are studied in the topic. its water solubility, volatility, boiling point, density and other physical parameters are investigated. characteristic reactions for isopropyl alcohol - oxidation (formation of acetone), esterification, dehydration, interaction with sodium and other functional group reactions are explained. oxidation properties of secondary alcohols and their difference with primary alcohols are analyzed. the subject examines the industrial and practical importance of isopropyl alcohol. its use as a solvent, disinfectant, component in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industry, and as an intermediate in organic synthesis is explained. isopropyl alcohol's storage, flammability properties, safe handling practices, and environmental aspects are reviewed. as a result of mastering the subject, students will be able to: explain the structure, nomenclature and place of isopropyl alcohol in the class of alcohols; they will be able to express the laboratory and industrial synthesis methods of isopropyl alcohol with chemical equations; they will be able to explain the mechanism of propene hydration reaction and markovnikov's rule; they will be able to interpret the main physical and chemical properties of isopropyl alcohol; they will be able to analyze the oxidation and other characteristic reactions of secondary alcohols; they will be able to evaluate the application areas of isopropyl alcohol in industry, pharmacy and organic synthesis.

22. 22.
    Halogen derivatives. synthesis of isopropyl bromide.Laboratory

    In this topic, the structure of isopropyl bromide (2-bromopropane, c₃h₇br), production methods, physical-chemical properties and application in organic synthesis are studied. the fact that isopropyl bromide belongs to the class of halogenated hydrocarbons, its molecular structure, the location of the bromine atom in the carbon chain, the properties of the c–br bond and the general properties of aliphatic halogen derivatives are explained. nomenclature, isomerism and structural factors affecting reactivity of haloalkanes are analyzed. methods of synthesis of isopropyl bromide are studied in the subject. the interaction of isopropyl alcohol with hydrobromic acid or brominating reagents, as well as the coupling reaction of alkenes (propene) with hydrogen bromide, is investigated as the main method of preparation. during the halogenation of alcohols, the mechanism of replacement of the hydroxyl group with the bromine atom, the role of acid catalysts, the reaction conditions and methods of product purification are explained. chemical properties and reactions of isopropyl bromide are studied in the topic. the behavior of isopropyl bromide as a secondary halogenalkane in nucleophilic substitution (sn1 and sn2) reactions, the production of propene as a result of the dehydrohalogenation reaction under the influence of alkalis, the formation of organometallic compounds and other transformations are analyzed. the influence of the structure of the carbon skeleton and the nature of the halogen atom on the reaction mechanism is explained. the topic examines the importance of isopropyl bromide in organic synthesis. its use in the preparation of various organic compounds, including alkylation products, organometallic reagents, and other synthetic intermediates is explained. when working with isopropyl bromide, safety rules, toxicity of the substance, volatility and environmental impact are considered. as a result of mastering the topic, students will be able to: explain the structure, nomenclature and place of isopropyl bromide in the class of halogenalkanes; they will be able to express the methods of obtaining isopropyl bromide with chemical equations; they will be able to explain the mechanism of reactions of obtaining halogenoalkanes from alcohols; they will be able to analyze nucleophilic substitution and dehydrohalogenation reactions of isopropyl bromide; they will be able to evaluate the structural factors affecting the reactivity of halogenoalkanes; they will be able to explain the application areas and principles of safe use of isopropyl bromide in organic synthesis.

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