General chemistryTopics

The stoichiometric laws explain how substances combine in terms of mass and volume in chemical reactions. they are considered the basic laws of chemistry.

An atom is the smallest particle that holds the chemical properties of matter. an atom consists of three main parts: proton (p⁺) – located in the nucleus, positively charged. neutron (n⁰) – located in the nucleus, uncharged. electron (e⁻) – moves in the electron cloud around the nucleus, has a negative charge. almost all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. electrons are located around the nucleus at different energy levels.

The periodic law is expressed as follows: the properties of chemical elements and their compounds change periodically with increasing atomic number (nuclear charge). the periodic law was put forward by dmitri mendeleev, and later, after studying the structure of the atom, it was explained in its modern form based on the atomic number. the periodic table is a table in which elements are arranged according to their atomic number.

A chemical bond is an interaction force that holds atoms together in molecules and crystals. a chemical bond is formed as a result of atoms acquiring a more stable electronic structure (usually completion of the outermost electron shell).

A chemical bond is an interaction force that holds atoms together in molecules and crystals. a chemical bond is formed as a result of atoms acquiring a more stable electronic structure (usually completion of the outermost electron shell).

Reversible reactions go in both directions, while non-reversible reactions go in only one direction.

Electrochemical processes are reactions that occur during the conversion of chemical energy and electrical energy. these processes are based on oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. there are two main types of electrochemical processes:

Electrolysis is an oxidation-reduction process in an electrolyte solution or alloy under the influence of electric current. during this process, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.

A solution is a homogeneous system consisting of a solvent and a solute. a solvent is a substance with a large amount. a solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent. solutions can be solid, liquid, or gas based on their aggregate state.

Metals occur mainly in the form of ores in nature. ores are oxides, sulfides, carbonates and other compounds of metals.

Beryllium and magnesium are metals belonging to the group of lightweight construction materials.

Both metals are distributed in nature in the form of various minerals and are considered important raw materials of modern industry.

Chromium is a bright, silver-white, strong and durable transition metal. it is rarely found free in nature and is mainly found in various minerals. chromium is characterized by high temperature and corrosion resistance. due to these properties, it is one of the important metals for industry. natural compounds

Iron (fe) is one of the most abundant metals in nature. it is considered one of the main metals used by man since ancient times. iron is a silver-gray, strong and magnetic transition metal. although pure iron is soft, it becomes stronger and more durable when alloyed with different elements. iron is one of the metals that form the basis of modern industry.

The determination of the equivalent of zinc is one of the important tasks carried out to determine the equivalent mass of the metal in chemical experiments. equivalent mass is the value indicating the mass of an element combined with 1 mole of hydrogen or 8 grams of oxygen. when zinc reacts with acids, it releases hydrogen gas, and based on this process, it is possible to calculate its equivalent.

Gas laws are physical-chemical laws that study the relationship between pressure, volume, temperature and quantity of gases. the behavior of gases is mainly explained by boyle-marriott, charles and gay-lussac laws.

Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies the rate of chemical reactions, the factors affecting this rate, and the mechanism by which the reactions proceed. the speed of a chemical reaction is expressed by the change in the concentration of the reaction participants over a certain time.

Magnesium is a group II element in the periodic table and is a light, silvery-white metal. it is rarely found free in nature, mainly in various minerals. since magnesium has a low density, it is important in the development of light constructions. it is a chemically active metal and readily reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.

Manganese is mainly distributed in nature in the form of oxide and carbonate ores. it is mainly found in nature in the form of hematite (fe₂o₃), magnetite (fe₃o₄), limonite and siderite minerals. industrial production of iron is mainly carried out in a blast furnace. the most important ore is pyrolusite (mno₂). since manganese is an active metal, it is mainly obtained by reduction methods

Chromium (cr) is a transition metal located in group VI of the periodic system. it is a silver-white, shiny, hard and strong metal. chromium is rarely found in free form in nature and occurs mainly as the ore chromite (fecr₂o₄). chromium is distinguished by its resistance to high temperatures, corrosion and oxidation. the protective oxide layer formed on its surface protects the metal from external influences.

Iron is widely distributed in nature and one of the most widely used metals in industry. it is mainly found in ores such as hematite (fe₂o₃), magnetite (fe₃o₄), limonite and siderite (feco₃). industrial production of iron is mainly carried out by the reduction method in a blast furnace. the iron ore is first beneficiated and then fed to a high temperature blast furnace along with coke (c) and limestone (caco₃). carbon monoxide (co) formed as a result of burning coke reduces iron oxides to form metallic iron:

The basic laws of chemistry are important for studying the formation, transformation, and quantities involved in reactions. these laws show that chemical processes are not random, but based on certain precise regularities.

The periodic law states that the properties of chemical elements change in a certain sequence depending on their atomic structure and nuclear charge (number). this law d.i. proposed by mendeleev. according to the modern periodic law, the physical and chemical properties of the elements change periodically with the increase in the charge of the atomic nucleus. mosley's law h. mosley studied the relationship between the atomic numbers of elements and their x-ray spectra and determined that the main indicator of elements is not the atomic mass, but the charge of the nucleus, that is, the serial number.

Electronegativity is a quantity that shows the ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself during chemical bonding. this property mainly depends on the nuclear charge and electronic structure of the atom. in the periodic table: electronegativity increases as you go from left to right across a period. electronegativity decreases from top to bottom across the group. the element with the highest electronegativity is considered to be fluorine (f). the electronegativity difference determines the nature of the bond between atoms.

The speed of a chemical reaction is characterized by the change in the concentration of the reacting substances over a certain period of time. in other words, the reaction rate is the rate at which substances are consumed or new products are formed. the speed of reaction depends on the following factors: nature of substances; the concentration of reactants; temperature; pressure; contact surface area; presence of catalyst.

Reversible and non-reversible reactions. displacement of equilibrium. equilibrium constant. factors affecting chemical equilibrium. le chatelier principle. temperature. effect of density and pressure on equilibrium.cat

Vapor pressure and phase transformations of solutions. raoult's first law. freezing and boiling point of solution. raoult's second law. osmosis phenomenon. osmosis pressure and van't-hoff's law.

. electrode potential. . standard electrode potential or voltage order. hydrogen electrode. information about the normal electrode potentials of metals.

Pyrometallurgy. hydrometallurgy, electrometallurgy. methods. purchase of metals in pure and highly pure state. electrolysis, vacuum extraction (distillation), thermal decomposition of volatile compounds.