General chemistry -1Topics

In this subject, the basic laws of chemistry and the theoretical foundations of stoichiometric calculations are studied. conservation of the mass of substances during chemical reactions, the fact that compounds have a stable composition, and the combination of elements in various compounds in certain mass and volume ratios are explained. at the same time, the concept of equivalent, equivalent mass and its calculation, volume ratios of gases in reactions and the number of gas molecules under the same conditions are given.

The periodic law is a basic chemical law that states that the properties of chemical elements depend periodically on the charge (atomic number) of their atomic nucleus. according to modern periodic law: "the properties of the elements and their constituents change periodically with increasing charge of the atomic nucleus." the periodic law was proposed by dmitri ivanovich mendeleev in 1869. mendeleev placed the elements in order of increasing atomic mass and showed that their properties repeat at certain intervals. in modern times, elements are arranged based on increasing atomic number (number of protons). basic provisions of periodic law the properties of elements depend on their atomic structure. as the atomic number increases, the electronic structure changes in a certain order. elements located in the same group show similar chemical properties. from left to right in the periods, metallic properties decrease and non-metallic properties increase. metallic properties and atomic radius increase from top to bottom in groups. importance of periodic law

In this topic, general information is given about the structure of the atom, the elementary particles that make up the atom (proton, neutron and electron), their properties and their location in the atom. the structure of the atomic nucleus, the concept of isotopes and the organization of the electron shell of the atom are explained.

Ionic communication. ions forming communication. ionic compounds. metal communication. orientation and saturation of metal bond. bond is an interaction that binds atoms and ions together and ensures the formation of substances. chemical bonds are formed mainly by the presence of electrons in the outer electron layers of atoms. atoms donate, accept, or share electrons to reach a more stable electron configuration (usually that of the noble gases). the main types of chemical bonds ionic communication it is caused by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. it is mainly formed between metal and non-metal atoms. it is based on the electrostatic attraction between positively and negatively charged ions.

Vapor pressure and phase transformations of solutions. raoult's first law. freezing and boiling point of solution. raoult's second law. osmosis phenomenon. osmosis pressure and van't-hoff's law a solution is a homogeneous system consisting of two or more substances. in a solution, one substance is evenly distributed in another substance and forms a single composition. the main components of a solution are the solvent and the solute. basic concepts of solution a solvent is a component that is present in larger quantities and dissolves another substance. a solute is a component that dissolves in a solvent. a solution is a system formed by the interaction of a solvent and a solute. types of solutions according to the state of the aggregate: gas solutions (e.g. air) liquid solutions (for example, a solution of salt in water) solid solutions (eg alloys) by concentration: unsaturated solution – a solution that can still dissolve the additive. saturated solution - a solution that has dissolved the maximum amount of substance at a certain temperature. a system that stores more matter than a saturated solution - a supersaturated solution. the main properties of solutions it has a homogeneous structure. since the particles are very small, they are not separated by filtration. the properties of the solution depend on its composition and concentration. temperature, pressure, and the nature of the substances affect solubility. the importance of solutions solutions are widely used in chemistry, biology, medicine, industry and everyday life. most of the chemical reactions take place in the solution environment.

The rate of chemical reactions. the rate of homogeneous reactions. the rate of heterogeneous reactions. factors affecting the rate of reaction. fruit bond is an interaction that binds atoms and ions together and ensures the formation of substances. chemical bonds are formed mainly by the presence of electrons in the outer electron layers of atoms. atoms donate, accept, or share electrons to reach a more stable electron configuration (usually that of the noble gases).

Electrode potential. galvanic elements. jacobi-daniel galvanic cell. standard electrode potential and voltage order. hydrogen electrode. electromotive force of the galvanic element electrochemical processes are processes that provide mutual conversion between chemical energy and electrical energy. these processes take place on the basis of oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and are accompanied by the transfer of electrons from one substance to another. there are two main processes in electrochemical processes: oxidation is the process of giving electrons to a substance and occurs at the anode. reduction is the process by which a substance receives an electron and occurs at the cathode.

In this lab, the molecular weight of carbon dioxide (co₂) is determined by measuring the volume, mass, temperature, and pressure of the gas. the experiment is based on ideal gas laws. basic concepts: molar volume of gases; relative molecular mass; ideal gas law

Important compounds, oxidation-reduction properties and chemical reactions of chromium, manganese and iron elements are investigated in this laboratory work. topics studied: cr(iii), cr(vi) compounds; different degrees of oxidation of mn; reactions of fe(ii) and fe(iii) ions; oxidation-reduction processes

In this laboratory work, the equivalent mass of zinc metal is determined experimentally. the volume of hydrogen gas released during the reaction of zinc with acid is measured and the equivalent of zinc is calculated based on the results

In this laboratory study, the main factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction are studied. the dependence of the reaction speed on the concentration of the substances and the temperature is investigated experimentally. studied factors: concentration of the reaction substances; effect of temperature; activation energy; reaction speed.

Equilibrium of homogeneous reactions. equilibrium of heterogeneous reactions. displacement of equilibrium. le chatelier's principle chemical equilibrium is a state in which the rates of forward and reverse reactions in reversible chemical reactions are equal and the concentrations of substances do not change over time. in this case, the reaction does not stop, it just continues at the same rate in both directions, and a dynamic equilibrium is established. the main characteristics of chemical equilibrium the speed of forward and reverse reactions are equal. the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. the equilibrium state can change with changes in temperature, pressure, and density. the equilibrium constant (k) shows the relationship between the concentrations of substances involved in the reaction

Electrolysis process. scheme of electrolysis. anode and cathode electrodes. electrolysis of aqueous solutions of salts. laws of electrolysis: faraday's i law. faraday's second law.

Natural compounds. acquisition, physical and chemical properties. amphoteric property. application.

Finding in nature, natural compounds. physico-chemical properties and application of its preparation

Physico-chemical properties and application of its preparation

Manganese (mn) is a d-block transition metal with atomic number 25, located in the 7th group of the 4th period of the periodic system. it is a silver-gray, hard and brittle metal. it is not found in free form in nature, it exists mainly in the form of ores. the electron configuration of manganese is [ar] 3d⁵4s². the semi-solid 3d⁵ underlayer gives the element high stability. manganese can exhibit various oxidation states, making it chemically versatile among the transition metals.

Finding in nature, natural compounds. physico-chemical properties and application of its preparation

Om (cr) is a d-block transition metal with atomic number 24, located in the 6th group of the 4th period of the periodic system. it is a silver-gray, hard, strong and corrosion-resistant metal. the electron configuration [ar] is 3d⁵4s¹, which is explained by the stability of the half-filled 3d subshell. chromium mainly shows +2, +3 and +6 oxidation states. its +3 oxidation state is the most stable, while its +6 oxidation state compounds have strong oxidizing properties. chromium is not found in nature in free form, but mainly in the form of chromite (fecr₂o₄) ore. it is widely used in stainless steel production, metal coating, pigments, leather processing industry and as a catalyst.